The European Balance of Power System (1648–1914)

After Peace of Westphalia, European states developed a system of managing their relationships based on the balance of power. The goal was to prevent any single state from dominating all of Europe.

Key Features of the European System

Balance of Power Politics: When one state became too powerful, others formed coalitions to balance against it. This created shifting alliances and frequent wars, but also prevented any single state from conquering all of Europe.

Great Power Politics: A small number of major powers — Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia — dominated European and global politics. Their relationships and conflicts shaped the world.

Diplomacy and Congresses: After major wars, European powers met in conferences to redraw borders and establish new rules. The most important was the Congress of Vienna.

The Rise of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna (1815)
Napoleon Bonaparte of France attempted to conquer all of Europe in the early 19th century. His wars (1803–1815) disrupted the balance of power completely. After Napoleon's final defeat, the major European powers met at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to restore stability.

The Congress of Vienna established:

• A new balance of power in Europe
• The principle of legitimacy — restoring traditional monarchies
• A concert of Europe — regular meetings of great powers to manage disputes

This system, known as the Concert of Europe, kept major European powers from fighting each other for nearly 40 years.

Nationalism and the Unification of Germany and Italy

The 19th century saw the rise of nationalism — the idea that people sharing a common language, culture, and history should form their own independent nation-state. This led to the unification of Germany (1871) and Italy (1861).

The unification of Germany under Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck was especially significant. A unified Germany quickly became the strongest power in Europe, upsetting the old balance of power and eventually contributing to World War I.

Colonialism and Imperialism

During the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, European powers established colonial empires across Asia, Africa, and the Americas. This was driven by:

• Economic interests (raw materials, markets, trade routes)
• Political competition between European powers
• A belief in European racial and cultural superiority

By 1900, European powers controlled about 84% of the world's land surface. Colonialism had enormous consequences for the colonized peoples and shaped the political and economic inequalities that still exist today.